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Numéro 21 - Mars 2004

Pourquoi des marchés de permis de polluer ?

couve verteDans le cadre du Protocole de Kyoto, la Belgique s’est engagée à réduire ses émissions de gaz à effet de serre de 7,5 % par rapport à leur niveau de 1990. Récemment, un accord a été conclu sur la répartition de cet effort entre les trois régions et l’Etat fédéral. Afin de rencontrer leurs obligations, ceux-ci vont plus que probablement recourir aux "marchés internationaux des permis d’émission". La possibilité d’un tel recours fait néanmoins l’objet de réticences auprès de certaines personnes, dont des décideurs politiques. Ces réticences sont dues à deux facteurs : d’une part la complexité de l’instrument "marché de permis d’émission"; d’autre part la possibilité d’objections éthiques à sa mise en œuvre.

Ce numéro de Regards économiques vise à expliquer de manière simple le fonctionnement de tels marchés et à montrer qu’il peut tout à fait être justifié d’y recourir.

En ce qui concerne le fonctionnement de l’instrument, les questions suivantes sont abordées :

  • Que gagne-t-on à échanger des permis d’émissions ? La propriété fondamentale de l’échangeabilité des permis est de diminuer les coûts de réduction des émissions pour l’ensemble des pollueurs, encourageant par là la mise en œuvre de politiques de réduction d’autant plus ambitieuses. Nous l’illustrons par la présentation d’un système existant et considéré comme exemplaire : l’ «Acid Rain Program» (Etats-Unis).
  • En pratique, dans quel cadre les échanges de permis d’émission de gaz à effet de serre vont-ils se développer ? Nous identifions, présentons et comparons les deux principaux systèmes conduisant à des échanges de permis d’émission de ces gaz : le protocole de Kyoto (2008-2012) et la Directive européenne sur la mise en place d’un système de permis (à partir de janvier 2005).
  • Quelle sera l’ampleur des échanges et des gains générés par ces échanges des permis issus du protocole de Kyoto ? Plusieurs pays, comme l’Europe des 15, les Etats-Unis et le Japon, devraient avoir largement recours à l’achat de permis (environ 25 % de leur allocation initiale) afin de satisfaire leurs engagements. La vente de ces permis/crédits provient, d’une part, d’autres pays industrialisés (Russie, Ukraine et autres pays de l’Europe de l’Est, qui exportent plus de 30 % des permis qui leur ont été alloués) et, d’autre part, des pays en développement, via le "mécanisme pour un développement propre". Celui-ci autorise des pays industrialisés (engagés à réduire leurs émissions) à remplir une partie de leurs engagements par la mise en œuvre de projets de réduction d’émission dans des pays en développement (pays qui ne sont pas engagés au respect d’un quota d’émission national). L’échangeabilité des permis conduit à une baisse drastique des coûts de la politique de réduction des émissions (de l’ordre de 60 % sous les hypothèses retenues). Toutefois, le retrait des Etats-Unis provoque un bouleversement sur ce marché. Le prix des permis baisse considérablement, au bénéfice notamment de l’Europe dont les coûts du respect de l’engagement au Protocole de Kyoto deviennent alors particulièrement faibles.

Les questions et objections d’ordre éthique portent sur l’échangeabilité des permis et sur l’allocation de ces derniers. Les questions suivantes sont abordées :

  • Quels seraient les arguments éthiques allant à l’encontre de l’échangeabilité de permis d’émission ? Trois arguments (objections) sont envisagés : (i) il serait injuste d’exiger de se faire payer (c’est-à-dire de vendre des permis de polluer) pour réduire les émissions; (ii) il serait injuste de payer autrui (c’est-à-dire d’acheter des permis de polluer) pour effectuer les réductions à notre place; (iii) la possibilité d’un prix des permis injustement bas (aux dépens des pays les plus pauvres) serait suffisante pour renoncer à l’échangeabilité. Nous montrons que même si l’échangeabilité peut s’accompagner d’injustices, l’absence d’échangeabilité serait plus injuste encore.
  • Comment allouer de manière juste les permis entre Etats ? Les deux principaux critères d’allocation des permis sont considérés : le critère de grandfathering (allocation des permis au pro-rata des émissions passées) et le critère d’égalité par tête (allocation des permis au pro-rata du nombre d’habitants). Nous expliquons pourquoi le second est plus juste que le premier, même s’il doit toutefois être amendé. L’égalité par tête du droit d’émettre ne prend en effet pas en compte les différences, entre Etats, de coût de réduction des émissions et de coût des dommages causés par les changements climatiques (les petites îles du pacifique par exemple risquent d’être plus affectées que la Suisse en raison de circonstances purement géographiques).

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